They are rapidly-adapting mechanoreceptors that sense deep, transient (not prolonged) pressure, and high-frequency vibration. -Stapes By the end of this section, you will be able to: A major role of sensory receptors is to help us learn about the environment around us, or about the state of our internal environment. * saccharine, EXs associated w/ what taste sensation? Each of the senses is referred to as a sensory modality. Describing sensory function with the term sensation or perception is a deliberate distinction. e. Tectorial membrane, Which of the following structures is deepest in the inner ear? a) Vibration. Sensory receptors in the utricle detect the position of the: __________ occurs when impulses from an organ are perceived as originating from the skin. Mechanoreceptors in the skin are described as encapsulated (that is, surrounded by a capsule) or unencapsulated (a group that includes free nerve endings). 1) Fibrous tunic The . David N. Shier, Jackie L. Butler, Ricki Lewis. What type of receptors detect deep pressure and vibration? Overlapping between Wound Healing Occurring in Tumor Growth and in Central Nervous System Neurodegenerative Diseases. : Treated by convex lens. d. Optic tract b. gets higher. We tend to classify receptors according to the location or origin of the stimulus: Exteroceptorsrespond to stimuli from outside the body - vision, sound, touch, smell, temperature, pain etc. It is not surprising, then, that humans detect cold stimuli before they detect warm stimuli. These receptors respond to changes and stimuli in the environment. What lobe of the brain processes auditory information? photoreceptor: A specialized neuron able to detect and react to light. Which of the following statements about mechanoreceptors is false? Phasic receptors are rapidly adapting receptors. The papillae that are fewest in number, but contain the most taste buds, are the _________ papillae. Qualitative Evaluation of Intracranial Pressure Slopes in Patients Undergoing Brain Death Protocol. f. Round window Farsightedness disorder in which the cornea and lens system is optically too weak or the eyeball is too short. Sensation is the activation of sensory receptors at the level of the stimulus. 1 - Sound waves make the tympanic membrane vibrate. Nociceptors (pain receptors)- These receptors identify any extreme thermal or mechanical stimuli, which can be damaging. Graded potentials in free and encapsulated nerve endings are called generator potentials. Pacinian corpuscles detect transient pressure and high-frequency vibration. These receptors include Meissner's corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles, Merkel's disks, and Ruffini corpuscles. b. tympanic membrane. -Sclera There are three classes of mechanoreceptors: tactile, proprioceptors, and baroreceptors. ____ Current evidence suggests that endothermy evolved at least four times. 3) Retina. Pacinian corpuscles: Pacinian corpuscles, such as these visualized using bright field light microscopy, detect pressure (touch) and high-frequency vibration. c. Malleus detect pressure, vibration. e. Detectable odors are actually combinations of a smaller number of primary odors. 3. What is the largest structure of the vascular tunic? d. basilar membrane and vestibular membrane. The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Circulation, Chapter 21. d. Stapes, 5. oval window Related to these are Golgi tendon organs, which are tension receptors that detect the force of muscle contraction. 3. perilymph of scala vestibule The input arguments are vectors What type of receptor is found in the mucous membranes? - Utricle c. thermoreceptor. c - Inferior colliculus Perception is dependent on sensation, but not all sensations are perceived. b. inferior colliculus. There are a few types of hair receptors that detect slow and rapid hair movement, and they differ in their sensitivity to movement. Pacini corpuscles are found in both glabrous and hairy skin. What are receptors for the general senses? ; mechanoreceptor: Any receptor that provides an organism with information about mechanical changes in its environment such as movement, tension, and pressure. What is commonly referred to as touch involves more than one kind of stimulus and more than one kind of receptor. An MRI can provide images of your veins that may show if a blood clot has formed. A pressure receptor in the skin could be classified as a(n) ______. - Exposure to acid on the skin Merkels disks are found in the upper layers of skin near the base of the epidermis, both in skin that has hair and on glabrous skin; that is, the hairless skin found on the palms and fingers, the soles of the feet, and the lips of humans and other primates. detect deep touch. Exteroceptors Gustatory cells are found in taste __________. What causes Trachoma, a type of conjunctivitis? Humans can perceive various types of sensations, and with this information, our motor movement is determined. Pressure, vibration, muscle stretch, and the movement of hair by an external stimulus, are all sensed by mechanoreceptors and perceived as touch or proprioception. Unconscious proprioceptive signals run from the spinal cord to the cerebellum, the brain region that coordinates muscle contraction, rather than to the thalamus, like most other sensory information. The cranial nerves are connected to the same side of the brain from which the sensory information originates. . What does the molecular similarity of stevia to glucose mean for the gustatory sense. The central integration may then lead to a motor response. They, too, are found primarily in the glabrous skin on the fingertips and eyelids. They are a cutaneous receptor found in the dermis or epidermis. This process is called sensory transduction. This allows sodium ions to flow into the cell, creating a receptor potential. a. Incus e. stapes. The Peripheral Nervous System, Chapter 18. Merkels disks are abundant on the fingertips and lips. - Eustachian tube *Tensor tympani muscle, Structures apart of inner, middle, or outer ear? c. A short eyeball e. stapes. The LibreTexts libraries arePowered by NICE CXone Expertand are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. There are fewer Pacinian corpuscles and Ruffini endings in skin than there are Merkels disks and Meissners corpuscles. Tympanic membrane In 2009, an eruption threw solid volcanic rocks that landed 1km1 \mathrm{~km}1km horizontally from the crater. 3. perilymph of scala vestibule Gustatory cells have a __________ lifespan. Clouding of the lens resulting from a buildup of proteins, If a receptor's receptive field is ___________, it allows for greater specificity of localization. c. Visceral sensory neurons travel along the same pathway as many somatic sensory neurons. Respond to deep and continuous pressure k. Muscle spindles i. Proprioceptors that Detect muscle stretch and initiate a reflex that resists the stretch l. Tendon organs i. Proprioceptors located in tendons that detect stretch m. Joint kinesthetic i. -Anterior two-thirds of the tongue Endolymph has a __________ sodium and __________ potassium concentration. Each year in the United States, 10,000 new cases of spinal cord injury are reported. b. Oval window. In a taste bud the basal cells replace the __________ cells. dendrites enclosed in a capsule. Tonic receptors are slow adapting receptors. Different types of stimuli are sensed by different types of receptors. * acids Merkel's discs detect sustained touch and pressure. Mechanoreceptors in the skin are described as encapsulated or unencapsulated. -Vestibule Order the regions of the ear from lateral to medial. 1. *Vestibular (Consider that the deep pressure that reaches those deeper receptors would not need to be finely localized.) c. Stapes Which type of receptors do not exhibit adaptation? what type of receptors detect deep pressure and vibration? Such stretch receptors can also prevent over-contraction of a muscle. -Pinna (auricle) The posterior cavity contains the __________ canal, a remnant of embryonic development. Different types of stimuli from varying sources are received and changed into the electrochemical signals of the nervous system. These are slow-adapting, encapsulated mechanoreceptors that detect skin stretch and deformations within joints; they provide valuable feedback for gripping objects and controlling finger position and movement. Transparent: Also located in the dermis of the skin are lamellated and tactile corpuscles, neurons with encapsulated nerve endings that respond to pressure and touch. Researchers are looking for ways to cure paralysis. The bipolar cells stimulate the ganglion cells. Wed love your input. The sensory receptors of the inner ear for equilibrium are Muscle spindles are stretch receptors that detect the amount of stretch, or lengthening of muscles. - They are unmyelinated A tactile sensory receptorcan be defined as the peripheral ending of a sensory neuron and its accessory structures, which may be part of the nerve cell or may come from epithelial or connective tissue. The nociceptive receptorsthose that detect painare located near the surface. Meissners corpuscles respond to touch and low-frequency vibration. a. Glutamate The extraction of relevant features from the photoplethysmography signal for estimating certain physiological parameters is a challenging task. Rods continuously release the neurotransmitter glutamate. The vitreous body is also called the vitreous __________. Hearing and balance are also sensed by mechanoreceptors. c. Optic chiasm - Auditory tube. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of sensory receptors that extend from the central nervous system (CNS) to communicate with other parts of the body. e. Sclera Despite the rapidly growing popularity of laser vision correction (LVC) in the correction of myopia, its quantitative evaluation has not been thoroughly investigated. Ruffini endings also detect warmth. a. Axons of ganglion cells from nasal halves of both retinas Somatosensation occurs all over the exterior of the body and at some interior locations as well. Some stimuli are physical variations in the environment that affect receptor cell membrane potentials. A long eyeball *Saccule The hypodermis, which holds about 50 percent of the bodys fat, attaches the dermis to the bone and muscle, and supplies nerves and blood vessels to the dermis. Mechanoreceptors - provides sensations of touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception, 3 - Pressure waves are generated within the oval window and travel through the scala vestibuli. d. Fibers of the cochlear nerve The sphincter pupillae is controlled by the __________ division of the nervous system. If you drag your finger across a textured surface, the skin of your finger will vibrate. Which of the following are semicircular canals? Which of these is most vulnerable to irreversible damage caused by a very loud noise? The modulus of elasticity is 20GPa20 \mathrm{~GPa}20GPa for the concrete and 200GPa200 \mathrm{~GPa}200GPa for the steel. Meissners corpuscles are rapidly-adapting, encapsulated neurons that responds to low-frequency vibrations and fine touch; they are located in the glabrous skin on fingertips and eyelids. Perception is the central processing of sensory stimuli into a meaningful pattern involving awareness. Receptors are spread throughout the body, with large numbers found in the skin. Which are examples of both somatic and visceral sensory receptors? c. Nasal cavity -Cornea -Iris -Highly concentrated in and around the macula Inner ear Receptors for general senses are usually ____. detect deep pressure, vibration, position. These categories are based on the nature of stimuli each receptor class transduces. - Provides for eye shape - Is made of dense connective tissue Order these structures from superficial to deep. Transduction refers to . In the eye, the __________ humor is gelatinous. c. Perilymph Meissner's corpuscles detect changes in texture (vibrations around 50 Hz) and adapt rapidly. Put the events of sound wave movement through the ear and nervous pathways in order. For humans, the only electromagnetic energy that is perceived by our eyes is visible light. In bright-light conditions, visual acuity is best when light is focused on the ____________ of the eye. Meissner corpuscles in the fingertips, such as the one viewed here using bright field light microscopy, allow for touch discrimination of fine detail. Sensory receptors are classified into five categories: mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, proprioceptors, pain receptors, and chemoreceptors. Sound waves are funneled into the ears by the: True or False: Astigmatism is also called farsightedness. - They are immobile. Mechanoreceptors sense stimuli due to physical deformation of their plasma membranes. Receptors are the cells or structures that detect sensations. Anterior two-thirds of the tongue - Facial nerve (CN VII) a. cochlea. a. complex in structure 6. perilymph of scala tympani rationale: Mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical force such as touch, pressure, vibration, and stretch. Paraplegia, paralysis of both lower limbs, is caused by an injury lower on the spinal column. In humans, touch receptors are less dense in skin covered with any type of hair, such as the arms, legs, torso, and face. Using an allowable stress of 9MPa9 \mathrm{~MPa}9MPa for the concrete and 120MPa120 \mathrm{~MPa}120MPa for the steel, determine the largest allowable positive bending moment in a portion of the slab 1m1 \mathrm{~m}1m wide. __________ pain is a sensation associated with a body part that has been removed. What type of papillae is the largest and least numerous? c. sensory neurons. Free nerve endings are sensitive to painful stimuli, to hot and cold, and to light touch. Neurons in the olfactory bulb travel through the olfactory _________ to the brain. The structural classifications are either based on the anatomy of the cell that is interacting with the stimulus (free nerve endings, encapsulated endings, or specialized receptor cell), or where the cell is located relative to the stimulus (interoceptor, exteroceptor, proprioceptor). Drag each label to the appropriate box to indicate whether each statement is associated with rods or cones. What is the most numerous type of receptor? Are receptors that can respond to changes in pressure? For example, have you ever stretched your muscles before or after exercise and noticed that you can only stretch so far before your muscles spasm back to a less stretched state? Optic disc Somatosensation belongs to the general senses, which are those sensory structures that are distributed throughout the body and in the walls of various organs. They are slow to adjust to a stimulus and so are less sensitive to abrupt changes in stimulation. They can also be classified functionally on the basis of the transduction of stimuli, or how the mechanical stimulus, light, or chemical changed the cell membrane potential. a. Lamellated corpuscles b. - Supporting cells c. Cl- Previous Article in Journal. d - Cochlear nucleus The cranial nerves can be strictly sensory fibers, such as the olfactory, optic, and vestibulocochlear nerves, or mixed sensory and motor nerves, such as the trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves. Which type of corpuscles detect pressure? That makes them finely sensitive to edges and they come into use in tasks such as typing on a keyboard. During hearing, the structure(s) first to vibrate is/are the which is a type of tonic receptor that detects both continuous deep pressure and distortion of the skin? These categories are based on the nature of stimuli each receptor class transduces. Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo@libretexts.orgor check out our status page at https://status.libretexts.org. Several distinct receptor types form the somatosensory system including thermoreceptors (heat), nociceptors (pain), and mechanoreceptors (pressure). A receptor or receptor cell is changed directly by a stimulus. The types of nerve endings, their locations, and the stimuli they transduce are presented in the table below. a. Ossicles -Used in scotopic vision There are multiple types of mechanoreceptors in the skin that are activated by different types of touch stimuli The receptive field size differs among the types of mechanoreceptors The adaptation rate differs among the types of mechanoreceptors Receptive field is a region of skin that activate a given mechanoreceptor Proprioceptive and kinesthetic signals come from limbs. The general sense that is usually referred to as touch includes chemical sensation in the form of nociception, or pain. Ribosome profiling can therefore detect drug-induced translational readthrough (DITR) events at premature termination codons (PTCs) as a consequence of a nonsense mutation in the . In this paper, an acoustic radiation force-optical coherence elastography (ARF-OCE) system was proposed to evaluate LVC by measuring the residual stromal bed (RSB) elasticity, because it is directly relevant to the RSB . Journals. d. oval window. c. Visceral sensory neurons travel along the same pathway as many somatic sensory neurons. The bipolar cells stimulate the ganglion cells. For the function b. oval window. (Note that the special senses are all primarily part of the somatic nervous system in that they are consciously perceived through cerebral processes, though some special senses contribute to autonomic function). c. the photoreceptors are photobleached. d. gets lower. receptors in the eye respond to a different type of input than receptors in the skin. The average intensity of light emerging from a polarizing sheet is 0.764W/m20.764 \mathrm{W} / \mathrm{m}^{2}0.764W/m2, and the average intensity of the horizontally polarized light incident on the sheet is 0.883W/m20.883 \mathrm{W} / \mathrm{m}^{2}0.883W/m2. The dynamics of capsaicin binding with this transmembrane ion channel is unusual in that the molecule remains bound for a long time. Pacinian corpuscles, located deep in the dermis of both glabrous and hairy skin, are structurally similar to Meissners corpuscles. Which of the following are true of the olfactory hairs? a. hair cells covered by an otolithic membrane A transmembrane protein receptor is a protein in the cell membrane that mediates a physiological change in a neuron, most often through the opening of ion channels or changes in the cell signaling processes. As tears drain through the lacrimal caruncle they enter small holes called the lacrimal __________. Stressed or damaged tissues release chemicals that activate receptor proteins in the nociceptors. -Ciliary body The bipolar cells do not stimulate the ganglion cells. Three types of receptors detect touch: Meissner corpuscles, Merkel disks, and free nerve endings. -Epiglottis, a. Axons of ganglion cells from nasal halves of both retinas, Which nerve fibers cross in the optic chiasma? Krause end bulbs detect cold. what is a wild type receptor? It is not surprising, then, that humans detect cold stimuli before they detect warm stimuli. f. Ganglion cell, 1. c. broad and deep. Both the upper and lower layers of the skin hold rapidly and slowly adapting receptors. 2. round window 6. - Utricle. What structure transforms one type of energy into a different type of energy? Which of the following are correct names for the tube that connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx? 30 seconds . Cutaneous receptors are a type of __________. * H+, EXs associated w/ what taste sensation? (Gauge pressure is the difference between the actual pressure and atmospheric pressure.). A fifth type of mechanoreceptor, Krause end bulbs, are found only in specialized regions. Merkels disks and Meissners corpuscles are not as plentiful in the palms as they are in the fingertips. Tears contain an antibiotic-like enzyme called __________. -Semicircular canals The general senses also include the visceral senses, which are separate from the somatic nervous system function in that they do not normally rise to the level of conscious perception. -Uses rhodopsin 4. vestibular membrane A receptor cell is changed directly by a stimulus. - They function well in dim light. What receptors detect touch and pressure? What type of receptors detect deep pressure and vibration? Pacinian corpuscles are rapidly adapting receptors that detect gross pressure changes and vibrations in the skin. What type of receptor detects changes in light? c. Axons of ganglion cells from the retina of the right eye Finally, vision involves the activation of photoreceptors. Light touch is transduced by the encapsulated endings known as tactile (Meissners) corpuscles. c) Cold. b. Place the following labels in order indicating the passage of sound waves through the ear and hearing apparatus starting outside the ear. What type of receptor monitors changes in position? 5. basilar membrane How is receptor density estimated in a human subject? - LIGHT. monitor sensory receptors. 4) Bipolar cells. Myopia - Neural layer of the retina b. Finally, vision involves the activation of photoreceptors. Legal. d. semicircular ducts. d. the ability to determine how close or far away an object is. the general sense of touch, which is known as somatosensation, can be separated into light pressure, deep pressure, vibration, itch, pain, temperature, or hair . d. outer hair cells of the spiral organ f. Superior colliculus Meissners corpuscles extend into the lower dermis. It joins opsin to retinal. Prove the given statement. Three ways to classify receptors 1. type of stimulus 2. body location 3. structural complexity Mechanoreceptors respond to touch, pressure, vibration, and stretch Theremoreceptors sensitive to changes in temperature Photoreceptors respond to light energy (retina) Chemoreceptors respond to chemicals (e.g., smell, taste, changes in blood chemistry) Drag and drop the labels into the appropriate location on the figure. Meissner corpuscles are the mechanoreceptorslocated in the dermis that detect deep pressure and stretch. Can an ultrasound detect placental . This occurs when a stimulus is detected by a receptor which generates a graded potential in a sensory neuron. (credit: modification of work by Wbensmith/Wikimedia Commons; scale-bar data from Matt Russell). 5. Receptors. - DARK What structures make up the vestibular complex? Merkels disks (shown in Figure2) are found in the upper layers of skin near the base of the epidermis, both in skin that has hair and on glabrous skin, that is, the hairless skin found on the palms and fingers, the soles of the feet, and the lips of humans and other primates. Is it possible to whirl a bucket of water fast enough in a vertical circle so that the water won't fall out? Barorecptors detect pressure changes in an organ. * caffeine a. Choroid The brain can determine the static position of the head due to sensors in the Cornea, aqueous humor, sclera, iris, lens, choroid, ciliary body, vitreous humor. They are slow-adapting, unencapsulated nerve endings, which respond to light touch. Modality refers to the way that information is encoded into a perception. The lamellar corpuscles (also known as Pacinian corpuscles) in the skin and fascia detect rapid vibrations (of about 200-300 Hz). Merkel cells are located in the stratum basale of the epidermis. 4. vestibular membrane This redesigned and updated new edition offers a comprehensive introductory survey of basic clinical health care skills for learners entering health care programs or for those that think they may be interested in pursuing a career in health care. For example, the general sense of touch, which is known as somatosensation, can be separated into light pressure, deep pressure, vibration, itch, pain, temperature, or hair movement. __________ are receptors that detect chemicals. *Pinna, Structures apart of inner, middle, or outer ear? g. Primary visual cortex, a. Which of the following is a location where Krause bulbs are located? They induce pain. Interoceptorsor visceroceptorsrespond to stimuli arising within the body such as chemical stimuli, deep pressure, and many others. What are the three types of receptors that detect touch and pressure? b. somatic sensory receptor. After the thalamus, auditory nerve signals reach the What is the function of the auditory ossicles? 8 - Round window. This spasm is a reflex that is initiated by stretch receptors to avoid muscle tearing. a. bony and membranous labyrinths. Capsaicin molecules bind to a transmembrane ion channel in nociceptors that is sensitive to temperatures above 37C. The suspensory ligaments connect the __________ to the ciliary muscles. - Semicircular canals Stretching of the skin is transduced by stretch receptors known as bulbous corpuscles. Ruffini endings detect stretch, deformation within joints, and warmth. d. Cochlea a. Bony labyrinth Which of the following would stimulate somatic nociceptors? The Chemical Level of Organization, Chapter 3. That makes them very sensitive to edges; they come into use in tasks such as typing on a keyboard. c. hair cells of spiral organ. Somatosensation is also known as tactile sense, or more familiarly, as the sense of touch. c.primary auditory cortex. The nerves that convey sensory information from the periphery to the CNS are either spinal nerves, connected to the spinal cord, or cranial nerves, connected to the brain. f. Choroid -Uses photopsin. - DARK Pain is primarily a chemical and sometimes mechanical sense that interprets the presence of chemicals from tissue damage, or intense mechanical stimuli, through a nociceptor. Special pressure sensors called baroreceptors (or venoatrial stretch receptors) located in the right atrium of the heart detect increases in the volume and pressure of blood returned to the heart. a. gets louder. A special sense (discussed in Chapter 15)is one that has a specific organ devoted to it, namely the eye, inner ear, tongue, or nose. and (6, -3.8). b - Primary auditory cortex What was the author's purpose? Optic nerve Merkels disks, which are unencapsulated, respond to light touch. Somatosensation is considered a general sense, as opposed to the submodalities discussed in this section. c. overlapping visual fields. -Vitreous humor There are four primary tactile mechanoreceptors in human skin: Merkels disks, Meissners corpuscles, Ruffini endings, and Pacinian corpuscle; two are located toward the surface of the skin and two are located deeper. Listing all the different sensory modalities, which can number as many as 17, involves separating the five major senses into more specific categories, or submodalities, of the larger sense. They are slow-adapting, unencapsulated nerve endings, and they respond to light touch. They are rapidly- adapting, fluid-filled, encapsulated neurons with small, well-defined borders which are responsive to fine details. The nasolacrimal duct is found on the __________ side of the nose. These receptors are the main sensory cells in the tactile system. 1. b. Recall that the epidermis is the outermost layer of skin in mammals. c. gets higher and louder. These categories are based on the nature of the stimuli that each receptor class transduces. Order the structures of the vascular tunic from anterior to posterior. 4 - Ossicles Free nerve endings are terminal branches of: What type of phasic receptors detect light touch, shapes, textures? As the number of cycles per second increases, the sound we perceive -High degree of neural convergence Lies deep to dermis. In skeletal muscle tissue, these stretch receptors are called muscle spindles. e. Lateral geniculate nucleus 1.2 Structural Organization of the Human Body, 2.1 Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter, 2.4 Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 2.5 Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 3.2 The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles, 4.3 Connective Tissue Supports and Protects, 5.3 Functions of the Integumentary System, 5.4 Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System, 6.6 Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue, 6.7 Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems, 7.6 Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton, 8.5 Development of the Appendicular Skeleton, 10.3 Muscle Fiber Excitation, Contraction, and Relaxation, 10.4 Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension, 10.8 Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue, 11.1 Describe the roles of agonists, antagonists and synergists, 11.2 Explain the organization of muscle fascicles and their role in generating force, 11.3 Explain the criteria used to name skeletal muscles, 11.4 Axial Muscles of the Head Neck and Back, 11.5 Axial muscles of the abdominal wall and thorax, 11.6 Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs, 11.7 Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs, 12.1 Structure and Function of the Nervous System, 13.4 Relationship of the PNS to the Spinal Cord of the CNS, 13.6 Testing the Spinal Nerves (Sensory and Motor Exams), 14.2 Blood Flow the meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid Production and Circulation, 16.1 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System, 16.4 Drugs that Affect the Autonomic System, 17.3 The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus, 17.10 Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions, 17.11 Development and Aging of the Endocrine System, 19.2 Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity, 20.1 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels, 20.2 Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance, 20.4 Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System, 20.6 Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation, 21.1 Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems, 21.2 Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response, 21.3 The Adaptive Immune Response: T lymphocytes and Their Functional Types, 21.4 The Adaptive Immune Response: B-lymphocytes and Antibodies, 21.5 The Immune Response against Pathogens, 21.6 Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses, 21.7 Transplantation and Cancer Immunology, 22.1 Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System, 22.6 Modifications in Respiratory Functions, 22.7 Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System, 23.2 Digestive System Processes and Regulation, 23.5 Accessory Organs in Digestion: The Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder, 23.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look, 25.1 Internal and External Anatomy of the Kidney, 25.2 Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney: Anatomy of the Nephron, 25.3 Physiology of Urine Formation: Overview, 25.4 Physiology of Urine Formation: Glomerular Filtration, 25.5 Physiology of Urine Formation: Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion, 25.6 Physiology of Urine Formation: Medullary Concentration Gradient, 25.7 Physiology of Urine Formation: Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition, 27.3 Physiology of the Female Sexual System, 27.4 Physiology of the Male Sexual System, 28.4 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth, 28.5 Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages.